Category: American Sociological Association (ASA) Style Guide, 6th Edition

REBUTTAL NEEDED:
Given our understanding of how prison situations act on the mind of the individual (as demonstrated by the Zimbardo study), what recommendations or changes would you suggest for our nations prison environments? (In answering this, please be sure to note concepts from the sections of the chapter that directly discuss this).

The Zimbardo experiment demonstrated the significance of power dynamics and social roles in behavior, beliefs, and attitudes. The Zimbardo experiment demonstrated the destructive effects of power imbalance on both the guards and prisoners. Several of the guards showed sadistic behavior, and several of the prisoners experienced psychological trauma, with some having to be released from the experiment early. The prisoners emotional responses ranged from anger, rage, and depression. The prison experiment seemed to mimic the custodial prison environment. The ASP text suggests that one recommendation for prison reform is to embrace the concept of a therapeutic community.  This type of incarceration would focus on growth and development to decrease recidivism, rather than enforcing power-dynamics that illicit negative emotions. The therapeutic community more closely resembles reality, and therefore is more likely to be a place for fostering personal growth while simulating real-world dynamics. The custodial prison environment has been shown to be ineffective at reducing the risk of recidivism and is ineffective at rehabilitation, with many prisoners who are released reoffending. As the text noted, the environment of the prison or incarceration system should be based on the needs of the offender. If the offender is motivated to make positive changes and will eventually reenter society, they should have the opportunity for rehabilitation through therapeutic community. Alternatively, if a person will never reenter society (based on murder or other life sentence), their violent past indicates they may require a system maintenance and system change environment. In this way, the type of prison environment should be tailored to the likelihood of re-entry into society based on the sentence and the crime.

Gruman, J. A., Frank W. Schneider, and Larry M. Coutts. 2017. Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Thousand Oaks: CA. Sage.

REBUTTAL NEEDED:
Given our understanding of how prison situations act on the mind of the individual (as demonstrated by the Zimbardo study), what recommendations or changes would you suggest for our nations prison environments? (In answering this, please be sure to note concepts from the sections of the chapter that directly discuss this).

In regard to prison reformation ASP expresses two sentiments. First, prisons have a social climate, which in some broad sense could be stated as the personality of the prison. Additionally, ASP does not expressly state it, but I took from the reading that it preferred therapeutic communities, which are residential facilities that encourage personal growth and development of its occupants. Ultimately, therapeutic communities aim to curb deviant behavior by changing the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of individuals to a more adaptable or normative lifestyle when freed opposed to the deviant lifestyle that ended with them in prison. For me, I think there needs to be more therapeutic community elements in the prison, but I am not of mind that it needs to be entirely a therapeutic community. I believe the changing of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors is paramount for prisoners, but not at an expense to the social climate of the prison (i.e. the realization youre in prison). Zimbardo mentioned in the video that human behavior is under the control and influenced by trivial things like roles, rules, symbols, uniforms. In that sense, Id change the prison guard uniforms. I would conduct research into the most non-combative or threatening uniforms quantitatively and qualitatively and have multiple redesigns done, and then the prison guards would wear that. This would be an attempt to change behaviors or lessen the power dynamics. Lastly, I think the biggest component of my prison reformation would be what we send people to prison for to begin with, but I suppose thats a different conversation. 

IColleagues’ response1:
Quantitative research is used to analyze problems by generating numerical data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It can be used to quantify opinions, behaviors, attitudes, demographic differences, and many other defined variables within a larger sample population. While producing quantitative research, researchers may seek to measure and analyze data to formulate facts or uncover the meaning or reasoning behind various social phenomena. When conducting quantitative research, multiple modes of collecting data, such as online surveys, telephone interviews, online poles, systematic observations, mobile surveys, longitudinal studies, and many more. Qualitative is far more deductive than qualitative research due to the ability to quantify data, which some social scientists would argue makes it more scientific; however, it is much more of a systematic approach. It can be argued that it takes away from the natural process of research.

2.) I struggled with this response, so hopefully, it is not too off the wall. Qualitative research in regards to political figures could be further explored using quantitative data. For instance, Ive run across research by doctoral students that examine feelings towards presidential candidates, and interviews are examined. I feel like a more significant scale research tactic is more suitable for something of that nature.

Colleagues Response 2:
1) What are the characteristics of quantitative analysis that lend itself to the perception that it is “more scientific” than qualitative research?  To what extent do you agree with this perception?  Why?

The deductive nature of quantitative analysis allows us to test theories and present data in numerical form. This takes away some of the biases that may exist in self-reported data and experiences shared by participants in qualitative research as well as some of the possibilities of researcher biases tainting the results of studies and thus gives this form of research the illusion of being more scientific. In other words, the quantitative methods look for confirmation of causal factors and the extent of the correlated effects, given all the internal and external criteria of validity and reliability are met, and the presentation of numbers allows others to quickly reference the data without any if, ands, or buts. Regardless, this information is still not expected to be perfect but can be close to perfect by running tests to confirm an acceptable accuracy. I would say that neither quantitative nor qualitative are more scientific, as both have scientific approaches to improve the analysis of the data. Quantitative research’s use of statistics and numbers in presenting results does not equate to more scientific in my mind. When I think of a scientific approach, I think of strict outlines used in the process of collecting and analyzing data. Qualitative research still abides by the rules of informed consent, bracketing our biases to analyze data, and reporting the information in a non-biased manner. There are checkmarks to be made by each individual step of the process. 

2) Many journals prefer publications that are mixed methods, rather than purely qualitative, calling on the researcher to verify any claims made through the collection and analysis of qualitative data with the numbers.  There are many popular theories out there that, through quantitative scrutiny are demonstrably false, but they remain very popular political talking points.  Are there any such talking points that you would want to “run the numbers” on to determine the extent to which they are actually true?

I would like to run the numbers on data that is shared by pro-life supporters. I would like to know how many people believe that people do not become pregnant from rape or that adoption is an answer to an unwanted pregnancy. I am constantly seeing information being spread around that your body rejects pregnancy based on the action of rape, or that people need to give children up for adoption rather than have abortions. What I do not understand is where they get their information and why they insist on repeating information based on hearsay. I found some contradictive articles about percentages of pregnancy occurring from rape. However, there are articles that show that some rapists intend for their victims to become pregnant (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2020). So, despite the statement that little to no people become pregnant from rape, I need to see proof. The suggestion of adoption does not seem viable either. With over 437,000 children in foster care as of 2018 (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2020), why are people suggesting that adoption is an alternative to abortion? This, of course, is a popular subject among politicians and their voting bases. I am not making a pro-abortion stance here. I think of my stance as being proactive, not reactive; education paired with available contraception would go a long way in preventing unwanted pregnancies. 

References:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. Violence Prevention: Understanding Pregnancy Resulting from Rape in the United States. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/understanding-RRP-inUS.html (Links to an external site.)

Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2020. Foster care statistics 2018. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Childrens Bureau. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/foster.pdf (Links to an external site.)

Initial Colleagues Response 3:

1.) Because quantitative analysis utilizes statistical methods when analyzing data, if the research is done correctly, objective conclusions can be drawn. This fact leads to the common perception that quantitative data is more scientific in nature when compared to qualitative research. In my opinion, this perception is valid, as using numerical data allows less room in misrepresenting or misinterpreting data. Quantitative research allows researchers to measure the relationship between variables and find potential correlation and causation, which results in objective findings. However, subjectivity can plague quantitative research as well. Researchers who use biased samples or numerical data to support preconceived notions can issue conclusions that seem scientific when they are not. All in all, quantitative methods are vital in truly scientific research. However, quantitative data being considered more scientific does not make it superior to qualitative methods, as they are complimentary and are both necessary in understanding social phenomena.

2.) In an era of fake news and alternative facts, it is challenging to watch news media when there is much polarization relating to what is truth. It is confusing when two opposing political figures use published statistics that prove their position on any given position, and occasionally they will be appealing from the same sets of data. Because of this, it can be a daunting task to determine what is true and what is false. Immigration is one political issue that consistently cycles in and out of relevance. President Trump suggested there is data that suggests immigrants crossing the southern border increases violent crime and sex and drug trafficking. Some news outlets emphasize horrific incidents that involve Americans and undocumented immigrants. However, it is hard to discern whether the incidents reported are isolated, or if such stories give validity to the idea that undocumented immigrants crossing the border increase negative social consequences. Mixed method research studies are invaluable to study social issues such as this, to educate the public, and formulate appropriate policy.

INITIAL ANSWER:
One of the standard steps in producing a scientifically verifiable research study is to conduct a review of the existing literature.  However, as we debated in the first Discussion, authority and documentation are sources of knowledge that may have their weaknesses.  Written treatises are not infallible and may lack the empiricism and objectivity of the scientific method.  Even if they are based on observable evidence and follow the scientific method, part of the literature review process is to critique the studies and potentially find flaws or gaps that were not addressed.  So, why do we do this in the first place?

1). Describe the multitude of reasons we conduct a literature review, from determining what was already discovered; to developing a theoretical framework; to finding flaws in the instrumentation, validity, reliability, and analysis and interpretation of data; and finding gaps in the literature.  How does this position us as researchers to conducting a comprehensive inquiry?  What benefit does it provide to discuss why we expect either similar or different results to the existing study?

2). What about sampling?  What are the pros and cons of conducting a census to generate parameters about your population?  What are the pros and cons of pulling a sample from the population to generate statistics?

3). What would you consider adequate sample size and sampling technique if you were conducting a nationwide poll on perceptions of Sociology degree holders?  What would an adequate sample size and sampling technique if you wanted to find out why Sociology programs include research methods courses?  Who would you talk to to get that data?

Answer: 

        The world is significantly evolving, resulting in the replacement of ancient techniques with the latest inventions which are more effective and contribute to better results. Research is the background of any invention or improvements on the current approach. Specific parameters such as the selection of the study population, methodology, sample size estimation, and literature review are standard for any form of study. A comprehensive analysis of the aspects of sociological research sheds light on the relevance of literature review and sample size in the quality of research.

            Literature review entails the examination of data from studies conducted in a similar field and comparing the findings. The reasons for a literature review include identifying the gaps that need to be addressed in interest, ensuring that the study to be conducted does not reinvent the wheel, identify the expected limitations of the study, and provision of criticism on previous research (Kalman 2020). The gaps identified challenges the researchers to conduct a comprehensive inquiry that will fill in the details that have been left out on former studies. Besides increasing the quality of research, a literature review enables the researchers to realize the factors that might affect the accuracy of data and put in the prophylactic measures required to reduce the study limitations (Kalman 2020). It applies to point out any expected improvements from the previous studies since the approach acts as an illustration that the study will be more comprehensive and less biased.

        Sampling involves selecting a subset of the population to act as the representatives in the research. The entire study population can also be involved in activities such as census, which has the advantage of comprehensive and specific data despite the high costs. The advantage of sampling is reduced costs and efforts required to reach out to individuals, but the information is generalized (Kalman 2020). Selecting an adequate sample size depends on the number of people in the study area. I would ensure a representation of ten percent when conducting a nationwide poll on sociology degree holders. I would use simple stratified sampling to determine why sociology programs include research programs, and there will be a representation of individuals from every group. I will talk to the sociology students and graduates to obtain data. Therefore, any research should include a selection of sampling techniques and a comprehensive review of the literature to influence the pattern of the study and improve on the results accuracy.

Reference(s):

Andrassy, Kalman Julius. 2020. Guide to Research Methods in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. 1st ed.

INITIAL REPLY, COLLEAGUE 1&2:

COLLEAGUE 1:
As usual, I enjoyed your post. Do you ever get tired of hearing this? We both seem to have stressed the importance of the times and conditions of our society with respect to the need for current research. Interestingly, I feel I may have understood the last question differently, so I approached my answer differently. thus I was looking at the national population’s attitudes regarding those who have Sociology degrees. Either way, I felt that without the resources for a national consensus, a portion of the population must be sampled. However, I feel that your approach would yield a good sample of those who are in the field of Sociology. It would be important to gather information from both the students and the professors to establish well-rounded opinions and reduce bias.

MY REPLY:
I appreciate your honesty, NOPE.. challenges me to search for more approaches to answering a question. The last question answered from your unique perspective was a scoping of precision. Analyzing all data-sets extracted from unbias from both senior-philosophers, and juniors yields an immense calibrated and comprehensive context worth debriefing. Furthermore, Sampling sizes and techniques used in data-collection vary depending on the nature of the research. For instance, the appropriate sample size in conducting nationwide polls about sociology degree holders’ perceptions should be about ten percent of their total population.

        Systematic-sampling is also an appropriate technique for the study because it involves selecting members of populations by researchers at regular intervals, which are determined in advance. Sampling-intervals are calculated by dividing populations by their sample-sizes. Sometimes, data can be obtained through talking, especially in research that entails finding out facts about research programs like sociology, including research methods courses.

COLLEAGUE 2:
Great post. You are correct a literature review entails an examination of data from other research studies that have already been conducted in a similar field in which you compare and contrast findings in the the research. I was intrigued when you mentioned  that gaps identified in a literature review exposes challenges researcher to conduct a comprehensive inquiries that would lead to details left out from the former studies in the research process. I agree that sampling involves selecting a subset of population to act as the representatives. Last, you are correct that selecting an adequate sample size depends on the number of people in the same study are important for data purposes. 

INSTRUCTOR”S REPLY:
Very Good, When you mean representation, do you mean 10% each relevant demographic or 10% of the whole 330 million population?  The latter would be a bit excessive and prohibitive in cost and time. 

One of the standard steps in producing a scientifically verifiable research study is to conduct a review of the existing literature.  However, as we debated in the first Discussion, authority and documentation are sources of knowledge that may have their weaknesses.  Written treatises are not infallible and may lack the empiricism and objectivity of the scientific method.  Even if they are based on observable evidence and follow the scientific method, part of the literature review process is to critique the studies and potentially find flaws or gaps that were not addressed.  So, why do we do this in the first place?

1) Describe the multitude of reasons we conduct a literature review, from determining what was already discovered; to developing a theoretical framework; to finding flaw in the instrumentation, validity, reliability, and analysis and interpretation of data; and finding gaps  in the literature.  How does this position us as researchers to conducting a comprehensive inquiry?  What benefit does it provide to discuss why we expect either similar or different results to the existing study?

2) What about sampling?  What are the pros and cons of conducting a census to generate parameters about your population?  What are the pros and cons of pulling a sample from the population to generate statistics?

3) What would you consider an adequate sample size and sampling technique if you were conducting a nationwide poll on perceptions of Sociology degree holders?  What would an adequate sample size and sampling technique if you wanted to find out why Sociology programs include research methods courses?  Who would you talk to to get that data?

How could you design a bystander intervention in your workplace for sexual harassment?

As a student of both sociology and psychology, I have found myself to be a firm believer in symbolic interactions and subsequently the social learning theory. This is not to say that what we learn from our role models is set in stone. I believe there is a fluidity in the types of people we choose to emulate based upon exposure to new experiences. What appears to be somewhat difficult to establish within the examples of intervention relating to sexual harassment is the effectiveness over time. 

Lets begin with the problem: sexual harassment. A survey of employees should signify the strengths and weaknesses within the workplace and therefore give us an opportunity to address behaviors that may be interpreted as acceptable norms but are sexually aggressive in nature. The stakeholders in the intervention of these behaviors include the company itself, as it would want to legally protect itself as well as maintain an efficient and confident workplace that enhances productivity but also includes all employees who desire a safe and productive work environment free of harassment. Inclusive of the stakeholders are the clients who benefit from productive employees providing goods or services.

The solution to the problem identified is to reduce workplace harassment.

To begin the intervention process I believe we can start by applying the social norms theory; we need to establish what behaviors are acceptable and further identify what behaviors are not acceptable. According to the cognitive learning model, these norms need to be acknowledged and acted upon by a role model. I would establish an outside expert to speak on this subject rather than a role model from within the company. This would eliminate the possibility of biases within the workplace. Intervention would apply the cognitive dissonance theory by requiring initial training using examples of sexual harassment that would conflict with the norms defined to cause cognitive dissonance.

The goals associated with this intervention would include reducing sexual harassment and increasing the number of stakeholders by holding all employees accountable for their behaviors. To accomplish this goal, positive behaviors are rewarded and acknowledged. 

Following the initial training, I would include bi-weekly assessments and follow-up training. This would apply the selective exposure theory, which states that pre-existing views are hard to combat, therefore repeated exposure to acceptable norms is important. Follow-up assessments and training may also address the possibility of stress surrounding the subject of sexual harassment that may be present during the initial training which may result in a cognitive load disabling the commitment of new information into our individual paradigms. Follow up assessments would moreover be used to reinforce the positive behaviors that may arise from the initial training. 

To ensure that this intervention did not need to be adjusted, surveys would need to be completed by employees semi-annually to ensure the costs of the intervention is outweighed by the benefits.

In reference to Kimmel, is it any wonder that someone studying the negative effects of masculinity, would indeed see the masculinity norms being adhered to and then revert to those norms? These norms are pushed upon us from birth and reinforced through media and social connections. Its not an excuse for his behavior, but he is fighting a lifetime of male programming.